Lupus The Great Imitator - 1856 Words

Lupus: The Great Imitator Verona M. Anderson-Francis American Military University Abstract Lupus is a disease that afflicts an estimated two million Americans and over five million persons throughout the world. Its symptoms are widely vary, often masking themselves as other ailments which make it difficult to diagnose. However, with more people aware of what Lupus is and how it can properly be treated and managed, it is very possible for a person with Lupus to live a normal, active, and healthy life. The human immune system creates a series of responses in the body to defend the body. If a foreign organism, such as a virus or a cold invades your body, it recognizes these foreign organisms, and, in turn, attacks them to get rid of them. One can think of the immune system as an army of many cells which have set up their own bastion in the human body. They have only one job: To defend. The immune system’s cells are various kinds of white blood cells. The human body typically creates about 1000 million white blood cells on a daily basis. A group of these cells, macrophages, establish a patrol of sorts throughout the body killing germs as soon as they enter the body. However, sometimes an infection can cause the macrophages to succumb to it. The body begins to fight back with stronger T- and B-cells. Nothing is eternal. Even the most sophisticated of machines break. The human body is one of those sophisticated machines. Sometimes, the immuneShow MoreRelatedLupu s Informative Speech Essay1027 Words   |  5 PagesLupus is known as â€Å"the cruel mystery† in the world of disease/medicine. 1.5 million Americans are currently diagnosed with Lupus, with the number possibly being a lot higher since it is one of the most difficult diseases to diagnose in the WORLD (5 Million some form of Lupus) B. Relevance: You might ask why should I care? How does this affect me or what is it exactly? Well the truth is that most people don’t realize they have Lupus. It so difficult to diagnose it is know as the â€Å"great imitator†Read MoreLupus s Symptoms Associated With Lupus1494 Words   |  6 Pagesnew normal. Unfortunately, this is the crushing reality for those who suffer from the chronic symptoms associated with lupus. In the information to follow, it will discuss what lupus is and what it’s symptoms are, how to diagnose and treat lupus, and what can be done to live as normal a life as possible. The biggest question for those diagnosed with lupus is â€Å"What is it?†. Lupus is a chronic autoimmune disease, this means it can damage any part of your body. Most commonly it affects the skin, jointsRead More Lupus Essay1079 Words   |  5 Pages Lupus Definition of the Disease Lupus is a chronic inflammatory disease of unknown cause that can affect virtually any part of the body. The medical term for Lupus is Systemic Lupus Erythematosus or better known as SLE. With Lupus there is a malfunction in some of the cells of the immune system. quot;In Lupus, the body overreacts to an unknown stimulus and makes to many antibodies, or proteins directed against body tissue. Thus, Lupus is called an autoimmune disease. †# Myth/Reality StatementsRead MoreHealth Self Assessment1317 Words   |  6 Pagesaccurate descriptions of my health status. I was recently identified as a pre-diabetic and my cholesterol levels were elevated. Additionally, nine months ago I was diagnosed with lupus, â€Å"a multifaceted disease which is often called the â€Å"great imitator,† as the symptoms of the disease mimic those of other diseases† (Lupus Foundation of America, 2010). An unfortunate set of events led to this morbid discovery. In September of 2008, I had an unexplained miscarriage after 10 weeks of pregnancy of whatRead MoreCase Study on Hypokalemia8797 Words   |  36 PagesIn Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in NCM 105 A Case Study on Systemic Lupus Erythematosus December 2010 Table of Contents Acknowledgement†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 Objective†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 Scope and Limitations............................. 5 Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6 Review of Related Literature†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 7-8 Case Analysis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9 Health History†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 10 Family Genogram†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 11 Anatomy and Physiology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 12-13 Pathophysiology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 14-17 Nursing Assessment Tool†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.

The Ethical Dilemma Of Pediatric Nursing - 1204 Words

In pediatric care, nurses are regularly faced with situations where they must make ethical decisions that impact them and their patients. An ethical dilemma occurs when the options for a solution present both favorable and unfavorable outcomes (Burkhardt Nathanial, 2008). In pediatric nursing, ethical dilemmas arise when there are conflicting views on how course of treatment should be perused. If a patient’s wishes conflict with others, nurses help resolve the conflict (American Nurses Association, 2001). When ethics play a role in conflicting views, personal and professional values are tested. Nurses need to be self-aware of their values in order to guide their decision-making. The ethical scenario described in this paper involves a 15 year-old patient named Mike. At age 7, Mike was diagnosed with acute myelocytic leukemia (AML) but treatments of radiation and chemotherapy put him into remission. However, at age 13, he relapsed and has been hospitalized numerous times for fever and neutropenia after having a bone marrow transfusion. Mike is now 15-years-old who is to begin another aggressive round of chemotherapy and possible transfusion. Mike is tired and weak and tells the nurse he no longer wishes to continue his treatment. However, his parent’s demand that he continue treatment, saying they have the right to make this decision. The nurse must make the decision whether to suspend or continue with Mike’s chemotherapy. The purpose of this paper is to explore theShow MoreRelatedThe Ethical Dilemmas Of The Pediatric Field Of Nursing1316 Words   |  6 PagesNurses working in the pediatric field of nursing are faced with a wide variety of ethic al dilemmas. There are many ethical dilemmas that can arise in the work field. Many individuals are having a tough time deciding to vaccinate their children; this in turn can leave society with a huge dilemma ethically. I am choosing to write about not vaccinating your child and why I feel this can be an ethical dilemma. Society today is faced with so many preventable illnesses that can simply be resolved byRead MoreParental Decision-Making Essay example1517 Words   |  7 Pagesrehabilitation. Pediatric nurses are in a unique position that serves as the facilitator of patient care and patient care decision-making between the pediatric patient and the patient’s parents. In this position, pediatric nurses become immersed in the concept of family-centered care, and because of this, they often find themselves in situations fraught with ethical dilemmas. In health care, there are often times when the medical team and the patient disagree on the plan of care, but in pediatri c health careRead MoreAPA Ethical Dilemma Paper1387 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿ Trial Testing in Children Leslie Aguilar Chamberlain College of Nursing NR 322: Pediatric Nursing 3/28/15 Trial Testing in Children Our country is one where every day, new medical treatments and medicines are being discovered and being approved to help Americans battle all of the different diseases and conditions that affect us. In order for us to be able to get access to those medications and treatments, many people agree to become part of clinical trials, they are the firstRead MoreBlood Transfusion Case Study1539 Words   |  7 PagesEvery day, the health care system faces many complex and controversial issues that raise unique dilemma and most of the time this dilemma is very difficult to resolve. One of this challenging dilemma is the refusal of blood transfusion by the patient or patient’s relatives. Blood transfusion or not is a crucial issue which creates a moral and legal dilemma for the health system; sometimes dealing with such situation takes extra time and energy. Nevertheless, doctors and nurses are obliged to provideRead MoreWgu Ebt 1 Task 2 Essay1493 Words   |  6 PagesEvidence-Based Practice Applied Nursing Research Western Governors University BSN Program Karolina O’Loughlin Student ID: 256940 Type of Sources / Appropriateness of Sources / Classification of Sources American Academy of Pediatrics and American Academy of Family Physicians article regarding acute otitis media is a filtered resource. It is an appropriate source for nursing practice because; it establishes clinical guidelines to diagnose and manage AOM. It also establishes guidelinesRead MoreThe Ethical issues in Paediatric Wards Essay990 Words   |  4 Pagesrights or wrongs to this case, which is based on a synthesis of other actual clinical scenarios. The aim of this essay is to explore the dilemmas between the ethical issues, the law and the wishes of the family and the effect of it. Ethics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of rational processes for decision-making. Culturally effective pediatric health care can be defined as the delivery of care within the context of appropriate physician knowledge, understanding, and appreciationRead MoreEthical Considerations When You Are Caring For Children And Teens?828 Words   |  4 PagesDiscuss ethical considerations when you are caring for children and teens? Nurses often encounter ethical and social dilemmas that affect individuals and families for whom they provide care. These situations may present more commonly when caring for the pediatric population. Nurses must know how to approach these issues in a knowledgeable and systematic way. Ethics involves defining the best course of action in a presented situation. Ethical reasoning is the analysis of what is morally rightRead MoreAntibiotic Resistance and Children Essays1221 Words   |  5 PagesReview of Sources American Academy of Pediatrics and American Academy of Family Physicians. (2004). Clinical Guidelines: Diagnosis and Treatment of Otitis Media. Retrieved August 13, 2013 from http://aappolicy.aappublications.org The above source is a filtered source as it was taken from the website of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). It is appropriate to use in nursing clinical practice because it discusses studies done that suggest that watchful waiting is appropriate when treatingRead MoreA Long Time That Nurses Make Some Of The Best Advocates944 Words   |  4 Pagesat the same time, I was letting her know about the patient’s concern so that she could decide for herself if it was information worthy of reporting to the doctor or simply performing an action herself. According to what I have learned throughout nursing school, I know that the most vulnerable population consists of children and the elderly. This particular group is at a life stage where there is underdevelopment or deterioration. Many systems are not at their highest functioning; for example, theRead MoreLegal, Ethical, And Policy Issues1392 Words   |  6 Pages Legal, Ethical, and Policy Issues, Oh My! Julia Colasurdo SUNY College of Technology at Alfred State Abstract Legal, ethical, and policy issues are an important aspect of nursing and medical informatics. Nurses should be aware of the dilemmas facing the use of informatics in the health care facilities. It is important to note the legal issues facing nursing because of the charges of negligence that can be incurred on the nurse if not aware. Ethical dilemmas of privacy including security

Online Privacy as a Corporate Social Responsibility- an Empirical Study Free Essays

Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 Online privacy as a corporate social responsibility: an empirical study Irene Pollach Aarhus School of Business, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark Information technology and the Internet have added a new stakeholder concern to the corporate social responsibility (CSR) agenda: online privacy. While theory suggests that online privacy is a CSR, only very few studies in the business ethics literature have connected these two. Based on a study of CSR disclosures, this article contributes to the existing literature by exploring whether and how the largest IT companies embrace online privacy as a CSR. We will write a custom essay sample on Online Privacy as a Corporate Social Responsibility- an Empirical Study or any similar topic only for you Order Now The ? ndings indicate that only a small proportion of the companies have comprehensive privacy programs, although more than half of them voice moral or relational motives for addressing online privacy. The privacy measures they have taken are primarily compliance measures, while measures that stimulate a stakeholder dialogue are rare. Overall, a wide variety of approaches to addressing privacy was found, which suggests that no institutionalization of privacy practices has taken place as yet. The study therefore indicates that online privacy is rather new on the CSR agenda, currently playing only a minor role. Introduction Since the 1990s, companies striving to be good corporate citizens have had to devise strategies to address issues such as pollution, energy use, waste production, animal testing, child labor, sweatshops, workforce diversity, or advertising to children. It has become a de-facto standard for very large corporations to publish social reports documenting how they address these issues in the marketplace, the workplace, the supply chain, and the community in order to ful? ll their role as good corporate citizens (Snider et al. 2003). The advent of the Internet has not only revolutionized many business models but has also rede? ned what it means to be a good corporate citizen (Post 2000), as most of the above issues are of little relevance to companies dealing with data and technology. One issue of public concern that has become highly relevant for IT companies is online privacy (De George 2000, Johnson 2006). doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-8608. 2010. 01611. x Information privacy denotes an individual’s right to decide what information is made available to others (Westin 1967). Privacy is thus guaranteed only if individuals know that data are collected about them and if they have control over this data collection and the subsequent use of the data (Foxman Kilcoyne 1993, Caudill Murphy 2000). In the United States, privacy-related legislation exists only for health care, ? ancial services, and children on the Internet (Bowie Jamal 2006), while many aspects of data collection and user control in electronic commerce are still unregulated (Fernback Papacharissi 2007). Countries of the European Union, meanwhile, protect privacy more strictly (Baumer et al. 2004), which has proven to be a hurdle for US technology companies operating in Europe. In 2008, for example, tec hnology giant Google encountered problems in several European countries with its data handling practices (O’Brien 2008). Despite legislative efforts in Europe, data privacy violations have occurred in a number of 88 r 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. , 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 large organizations, including, for example, the largest German bank, DeutscheBank (Neate 2009), or T-Mobile UK (Wray 2009). The problems with privacy legislation are that it is dif? ult to identify violations of these laws and that the law may lag behind what is technologically feasible. For the above reasons, global companies have some discretion over how much privacy they grant users and how much they reveal about their data handling practices to their users. This discretion adds extra complexity to the moral issue of whether companies take advantage of their powerful position by collecting and using data from users to further their own business interests, for example by sending out unsolicited promotional e-mails or selling user data (Pollach 2005). The discretion companies can exercise when it comes to information privacy and the ethical implications of this discretion entail that information privacy is a question of corporate morality. While theoretical work on corporate social responsibility (CSR) suggests that privacy could be a meaningful addition to a corporate CSR program, little is known about corporate practices. This paper therefore sets out to explore whether and how companies whose core business is based on data and technology are embracing information privacy as a CSR. The ? dings suggest that information privacy is emerging as an element of CSR programs, but that there is a great deal of variety regarding the adoption of privacy as a CSR. The paper ? rst discusses the moral issues behind information privacy on the Internet, reviews the literature on corporate responses to people’s privacy concerns, and then looks at the literature on privacy as a CSR. After describing the sample and the methodology underlyin g this study, the results are presented and their implications are discussed. The ethics of information privacy The very core of electronic and mobile commerce revolves around technology, digitization, and the exchange of information, which poses a number of ethical problems (Zonghao 2001). A particular challenge to information handling in electronic commerce is the trade-off between collecting data for the sake of transparency and not collecting data for the sake of privacy (Introna Pouloudi 1999). Another challenge is the trade-off between collecting data for the sake of pro? ts and not collecting data for the sake of privacy. As commercial transactions on the Internet or through mobile phones are commonly based on credit-card payments and the shipment of goods to the buyer’s home address, the balance is tipped towards the need for disclosure rather than the safeguard of privacy. However, companies collect not only personally identifying information (PII) from transactions but also collect PII when users register themselves, use online services, participate in sweepstakes or surveys, or send inquiries to the company. In addition to PII, companies collect anonymous click-stream 1/2 data and compile anonymous user pro? es when Internet users navigate the companies’ websites (Kelly Rowland 2000). Through the collection of IP addresses, PII can also be combined with anonymous click-stream data in order to obtain very comprehensive user pro? les (Payne Trumbach 2009). The easier access to and increased mobility of data have made information a commodity that is bought and sold by data brokers (Sp inello 1998). It is therefore also possible for companies to buy datasets of user information from data brokers and merge them with the data they have collected themselves. Companies may use the data they collect from customers and visitors on their websites merely to execute transactions, recognize users when they return to the site, and improve their website design based on users’ interests. But companies may equally use such data for purposes other than those they were collected for. For example, they may target banner ads at users, harass users with unsolicited commercial e-mails, or share this information with third parties (Han Maclaurin 2002). A growing body of literature documents people’s concerns about privacy violations in online transactions (e. . Culnan Armstrong 1999, Phelps et al. 2000, Sheehan 2002, Norberg Horne 2007, Norberg et al. 2007). Essentially, these concerns stem from the imbalance in power between companies as data collectors and users as data providers. While companies have superior knowledge of what user data are collected and how they are r 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 89 Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 handled, users may not even be aware that data are collected, let alone that they are combined into user pro? les. hus not suited to enhance user privacy or engender trust among Internet users. Corporate response to privacy At the turn of the century, some companies began to introduce chief privacy of? cers (Awazu Desouza 2004). Their tasks include gathering information about social and legal aspects of privacy, devising the company’s privacy strategy, disseminating information about corporate data handling practices to internal and external stakeholders, and representing the company’s commitment to privacy (Kayworth et al. 2005). Another corporate response to information privacy is privacy policies posted on commercial websites (Sama Shoaf 2002). The original idea behind privacy policies on websites was that companies would disclose how they handle the data they collect from users, while users would carefully read through the explanation of the company’s data handling practices, understand their consequences, and then make an informed decision about divulging personal data or not (Ciocchetti 2007). In reality, privacy policies contain legalese, tech-speak, and other obfuscating language patterns that obscure questionable data handling practices (Pollach 2005, Fernback Papacharissi 2007). Internet users have been found not to read privacy policies for the above reasons (Milne Culnan 2004). Privacy policies are sometimes supplemented with privacy seals awarded by private-sector institutions (e. g. BBBOnline, TRUSTe, WebTrust) or accounting ? rms. These seals indicate that companies comply with responsible standards of data handling, as de? ned by the awarding institution (Smith Rupp 2004). Consumers still have to read and understand the privacy policy, as the seal alone does not guarantee that the data handling practices of the company comply with an individual’s privacy preferences (Rifon et al. 2005). The problem with privacy seals is also that they do not effectively protect users from privacy breaches. The sealawarding institution may not know about a privacy breach or, if it does learn about it, can only revoke the seal, but has no means to help people regain lost privacy (Shapiro Baker 2001). These measures are Information privacy as a CSR Carroll (1979) categorized corporate social responsibilities into economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities, arguing that making a pro? t is the quintessential responsibility of companies, together with their adherence to legal regulations. According to this classi? ation, information privacy can be categorized as an ethical responsibility, given that legislation is insuf? cient to govern corporate decision making in all areas of data handling. This is elaborated on by Mintzberg (1983), who suggested that areas where CSR comes into play are those ‘where existing legislation needs compliance with its spirit as well a s its letter [and] where the corporation can fool its customers or suppliers or the government through its superior knowledge’ (p. 12). If a company decides to address information privacy, it may not just do so because privacy is an ethical corporate responsibility. Rather, Aguilera et al. 2007) argue that companies accept responsibility for social issues for three different reasons: (1) moral reasons determined by morality-driven values; (2) relational reasons driven by the company’s concern about stakeholder relationships; and (3) instrumental reasons driven by corporate self-interest. Moral motives are enacted particularly by individuals with organizational decision-making power who have strong morality-based values. Relational motives are grounded in a company’s desire to promote and balance stakeholder interests, thereby building trust, maximizing stakeholder wealth, and gaining social legitimacy (Aguilera et al. 007). Instrumental approaches are self-inter est driven, seeking to achieve greater competitiveness and protecting the corporate reputation (Aguilera et al. 2007). The latter approach corresponds to Jones’ (1995) argument that companies that manage to earn the trust of their stakeholders will be able to secure a competitive advantage through savings on monitoring costs, bonding costs, transaction costs, and search costs arising from managing the various corporate stakeholder groups. Instrumental motives 90 r 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 can also be driven by the desire to preempt costly government regulations (Aguilera et al. 2007). The strategy literature follows the instrumental approach to CSR, arguing that companies to which a particular responsibility is highly relevant can bene? t from integrating this responsibility into their overall strategies. Burke Logsdon (1996) list the following conditions in order for CSR to bring strategic advantages to the ? rm: the chosen CSR issue is central to the company’s mission, is voluntarily embraced, brings bene? s to both the ? rm and to the public at large, is addressed in a proactive manner, and is visible to external stakeholders. It has also been argued that CSR initiatives can bring sustainable competitive advantages in the form of a ? rst-mover advantage (Lieberman Montgomery 1998). However, for this advantage to emerge, the company must not only be the ? rst one to address a particular CSR comprehensively but must also continuously seek to enhance what it has achieved in order to secure this advantage (Tetrault Sirsly Lamertz 2008). The strategy literature therefore suggests that companies in the information technology industry could bene? t from embracing online privacy as a CSR, especially if they make this commitment visible to external audiences. Although theory suggests that privacy could be a relevant CSR theme for particular companies, very few empirical studies have addressed the link between information privacy and CSR. They include Sharfman et al. ’s (2000) survey among managers on how important they consider a number of social issues, including the protection of privacy. However, in the exploratory factor analysis they conducted, privacy was eliminated from further analyses. Fukukawa Moon (2004) included information privacy as an indicator of CSR in their study of CSR activities reported by companies in Japan. In addition, Chaudhri’s (2006) case study of global citizenship at Hewlett-Packard mentions privacy as one area the company has included in its CSR agenda. In previous theoretical work, Carroll (1998) has highlighted the protection of online privacy rights as one area where the law lags behind ethical thinking and morality comes into play. Finally, Post (2000) examined the changing role of corporate citizenship in the 21st century and pointed to customer privacy as a new issue of CSR. To date, there is no article that empirically studies in what ways information privacy is actually addressed as a CSR. Research design This study explores whether and how companies are embracing online privacy as a social responsibility, focusing on what measures they claim to have taken and how they communicate these to their external stakeholders in their CSR disclosures. In view of the lack of previous research in this area, this study is exploratory in nature. Accordingly, its goal is to identify the variety of corporate practices rather than to compare and contrast companies. The starting point for the analysis are the three processes of CSR included in Basu Palazzo’s (2008) process model of sense-making: (1) the reasons a company states for engaging in speci? c CSR activities, (2) the kind of behavior a company displays to live up to its CSR commitments, and (3) the way in which a company regards its relationships with its stakeholders. This section ? rst describes the sample and the data and then goes on to explain the methodology that was applied to analyze the data. Sample The sample consists of the largest companies from IT-related industries, as they are most closely intertwined with information through the hardware, software, or services they provide. To them, information privacy could be a meaningful strategic element of their CSR programs in two different ways. First, they may embrace privacy as a social responsibility in the way they collect and use data. Second, technology does not just violate privacy, it can also enhance privacy. Accordingly, IT companies may engage in corporate social innovation and develop privacy-enhancing products or commit themselves to educating consumers about privacy protection. Clearly, other large companies, such as retailers, operate online as well, but were not considered for this study, as data and information are not at the core of their activities. Large companies were chosen, as these companies are believed to serve as lead innovators in their industries. All IT-related companies from Europe 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 91 Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 and the United States listed among the Fortune Global 500 and the ? rst 1,000 companies of the Forbes 2000 company rankings were included in the sample. Neither of the two rankings includes ‘information technology’ as an industry. Rather, both incl ude a number of industries that deal with information and technology. These include Computer and Data Services, Computer Software, Computers Of? e Equipment, Network and Other Communications Equipment, and Telecommunications from the Fortune Global 500 list and Software Services, Technology Hardware Equipment, and Telecommunications Services from the Forbes 2000 list. A few IT companies listed in these two rankings could not be included in the analysis, as they had been acquired by another company since the publication of the rankings. Also, the two rankings overlap to a substantial extent, so that the ? nal sample amounted to a total of 95 IT companies. On each company’s website, the CSR section was accessed. If there was no such section, sections dedicated to the company background, mission and values, or ethics were accessed. The goal was to download all texts pertaining at least loosely to CSR and, if available, the latest CSR report. An important criterion was that privacy-related information was collected only if it was framed as a CSR issue. Privacy policies, which are a standard element of every commercial website, were not collected, as their existence alone does not represent a commitment to social responsibility. Of the 95 companies in the initial sample, 30 companies mention privacy in their CSR discourse. The analysis is thus based on these companies (see Appendix A). Their texts range from 21 to 2,367 words in length. Methods This exploratory study draws on both a positivist approach and a constructivist approach in order to look at the data as holistically as possible (cf. Jick 1979). When studying textual data, the fundamental difference between the two traditions is that the positivist tradition sees language as a transmitter of information, while the social constructionist tradition holds that people consciously and unconsciously create social realities when they use language. Accordingly, the textual data were ? st studied using quantitative content analysis, which systematically records the frequency of particular content features. Because of its quantitative, systematic nature, content analysis de-contextualizes the words from the discourse that is examined and therefore has no means to interpret its ? ndings within a wider context. The ? ndings of the content analysis were th erefore combined with a discourse analysis and are presented together. The combination of content analysis and discourse analysis has also been suggested by researchers in linguistics (van Dijk 1985, Herring 2004), sociology (Markoff et al. 974), and information systems (Trauth Jessup 2000). In this study, the results of both analyses together provide a much richer picture of corporate practices than one analysis alone could furnish. This is important, given the absence of previous research on privacy and CSR. Content analysis systematically condenses texts into content categories by applying a coding scheme that produces quantitative indices of textual content (Krippendorff 1980, Weber 1985, Kolbe Burnett 1991, Neuendorf 2002). The content analysis conducted as part of this study records in a systematic and exhaustive manner which companies in the sample have implemented which measures to improve user privacy. The approach chosen for this analysis uses factual codes, which capture precisely de? ned facts, as opposed to thematic codes, which capture themes addressed in a prede? ned textual unit (Kelle Laurie 1995). The factual codes pertain to privacy measures companies have actually taken, but exclude those that companies plan to implement in the future. With no existing coding scheme available, a preliminary coding scheme was developed from the data by examining the texts in the sample inductively (cf. Strauss Corbin 1990) for measures that companies have taken to secure user privacy. Overall, 41 different measures were identi? ed. The measures were recorded dichotomously as being either present (1) or absent (0). They are listed in Table 2 together with the results. The qualitative approach chosen here was discourse analysis, following a social constructionist tradition, which views discourse as a social action that is shaped by and shapes the context in which it occurs (van Dijk 1997a). Discourse analysis is a 92 r 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 method of textual analysis that focuses on how and why language is used in a particular way (van Dijk 1997b). It is based on the premise that people intentionally and unintentionally construct social realities when they engage in discourse. They use language in their roles as members of particular social groups, professions, institutions, or communities but also construct such roles when they use language in social situations (van Dijk 1997a). Similarly, organizational texts can be constructive and constitutive of realities just like text or speech of individuals (Fairclough 2005). Discourse analysis typically pays attention to language features such as repetitions, pronouns, passive voice, nominalizations, modal verbs, agent–patient relations in sentences, and attitudinal lexis in order to study the roles assigned to the participants in the discourse, the power relations between them, and the foregrounding or the backgrounding of concepts and events. The discourse analysis conducted here examines how companies present themselves as responsible companies when it comes to privacy and data handling. Basu Palazzo’s (2008) process model of CSR has guided the analysis and therefore also provides the structure of the results section. Accordingly, the results section starts with the companies’ reasons for including privacy in their CSR programs, then presents privacy measures companies have taken as part of their CSR initiatives, and ultimately studies the relationships with the various stakeholders that are affected by the company’s privacy practices. The reasons for including privacy and the stakeholder relationships are analyzed in the form of a discourse analysis. The analysis of the privacy measures is based on a content analysis, but enhanced with qualitative insights, as needed. Aguilera et al. ’s (2007) classi? cation of moral, relational, and instrumental CSR motives. Table 1 shows this categorization together with the text passages where these motives were expressed. The moral motives found include the understanding that Internet users have privacy rights, which the company wants to observe, and the acknowledgement that the company has the responsibility to protect the data they gather from Internet users. Relational motives include the recognition that customers have a desire for privacy, which the company seeks to meet, and the expectation that privacy protection will help the company win customers’ trust. Ultimately, one company expects to bene? t from its privacy program in that it expects to gain a reputational advantage from privacy protection. CSR behavior The content analysis revealed 41 different measures companies had taken to support user privacy (see Table 2). They have been grouped into four categories, which are discussed below. One company has implemented 19 of these measures, and nine companies have implemented eight, nine, or 10 different measures. At the other end of the spectrum, there are two companies that have not implemented a single measure, but still talk about privacy in the context of CSR. Further, eight companies have implemented one or two measures, and nine companies have implemented between three and seven measures. Most commonly, a measure was taken by only one company (19 measures) or two companies (six measures). The measure taken most frequently was taken by 15 companies. Thus, there is a broad variety in how companies address privacy. It is also worth noting that it is not necessarily the biggest companies in the industry that have taken lead roles in protecting user privacy. When ranking all companies according to their ranks on the Forbes 2000 and the Fortune Global 500 lists, one can see that the company with the highest number of privacy measures ranks among the top three on both the Forbes and the Fortune list. The other two companies among the top three in the Fortune and Forbes rankings have implemented only one and three measures, respectively. The three companies Results Reasons for privacy as CSR The texts were examined for indications of why the companies include privacy in their CSR programs. Only 13 companies voiced their motivation for engaging in privacy protection, presenting different reasons why they engage in CSR. The communicated motives have been grouped according to r 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 3 Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Table 1: Communicated motives for corporate privacy programs Motive Moral Explanation Three companies acknowledge that people have a right to privacy Quotations ‘To us, the right to privacy includes the right of individuals to have a voice in the use and dissemination of their personal information. ‘A person has the right to control what information about him or her is collected and to determine how that information is used. ’ ‘Con? dentiality and security of consumer data . . . are areas safeguarded by PT in order to respect the freedom and basic rights of each individual’ ‘We feel a strong responsibility to help ensure a safer, more enjoyable Internet, while addressing the challenges to privacy and security posed by today’s new media. ’ ‘Companies have a responsibility to ensure that the information they hold about their customers and employees is protected, stored, transferred, and used in a responsible manner. ‘Microsoft takes seriously its responsibility to help ad dress the security and privacy challenges of the information-based society, from viruses and spyware to spam and online identity theft. ’ ‘Respect for privacy is part of our commitment to observe high standards of integrity and ethical conduct in all our operations’ ‘Protecting our customers’ privacy is a priority. We understand and respect your desire to protect your personal information. ’ ‘The protection of personal information is a very high expectation among our customers, and to meet it, we . . .. ‘Externally, Sabre is committed to building customer relationships based on trust, and that includes recognizing the importance of protecting personal information. ’ ‘Consumer trust and con? dence is critical to Cisco’s business and to any technology and Internet-related business; as a result, the industry must protect citizens’ privacy. ’ ‘[We] have to acquire a ‘license to operate†™ by conducting our business in a decent and responsible way. ’ ‘Security and reliability form the basis of Telekom Austria Group’s stable and successful customer relationships. The Group therefore gives top priority to protecting the integrity and con? dentiality of sensitive data. ’ ‘Main opportunities: Enhance customer and employee trust, . . . support brand/reputation. ’ Four companies hold that they have a responsibility to protect the data they gather from Internet users Relational Two companies recognize that customers have a desire for privacy that needs to be met Four companies view privacy protection as a means to winning customer trust Instrumental One company states that it expects to gain a reputational advantage from its privacy program †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. that have implemented the second highest number of privacy measures occupy ranks #77, #87, and #173 on the Fortune Global 500 list and ranks #49, #518, and #782 on the Forbes 2000 list, which indicates that it is not necessarily the biggest companies in the IT industries that embrace information privacy. An investigation of the relationship between the number of measures taken and length of the privacy text on the corporate website revealed a correlation of 0. 77. This suggests that text length is an indicator of how important the issue is to a company. At the same time, it also shows that the companies generally do not talk at length about privacy without having taken relevant measures. One category of measures pertains to the companies’ internal affairs. They address processes, employee conduct, and, to a small extent, suppliers. The measures mentioned most frequently are the 94 r 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Table 2: The content of corporate privacy programs Internal Physical protection of data Procedural/administrative protection of data Electronic/technical protection of data Privacy policy Privacy is part of the code of conduct Privacy of? e(r) Privacy board/working group Employee training Disciplinary action for employee misconduct Privacy newsletter for employees Employee monitoring Privacy included in employment contract Online resources for employees Ethics hotline for privacy questions Internal privacy campaign Limited employee access to data Online reporting of privacy incidents Regular review of systems and processes Regular review of privacy policy Binding third parties to privacy agreements Reviewing third-party privacy practices Privacy newsletter for customers Guidance/information for consumers Resources for parental control child safety Privacy e-mail address Integrating privacy into product development Privacy blog Involving stakeholders in design of privacy policy Supporting IS education at schools and universities Publishing privacy research papers Supporting law making Supporting industry self-regulation Working with industry Working with governments Working with NGOs, think tanks Political action committee (PAC) Compliance with laws Exceeding laws Compliance with Safe Harbor Compliance with GRI Privacy seal 6 2 3 15 8 7 3 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 5 3 5 2 1 10 5 2 8 1 1 1 1 2 1 5 6 10 1 11 1 4 1 4 79 External 30 Collaborations 25 Compliance 21 â € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. existence of a privacy policy and privacy training, privacy being part of the code of conduct, privacy of? cers, physical data protection, and regular review of systems and processes. All other measures taken internally were taken by one, two, or three companies each, for example measures encouraging employees to report privacy violations and to comply with relevant guidelines. Two different measures pertaining to suppliers or other third parties were identi? ed, namely that the company reviews privacy practices of those partners and that these outsiders are bound to a privacy agreement. The second category of measures contains those directed towards external stakeholders. They include r 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 95 Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 primarily guidance for consumers regarding Internet privacy. Five companies take measures that address parents’ concerns about their children’s privacy. In addition to providing information, companies also solicit consumer feedback on privacy matters. Two companies highlight that they have an e-mail address to which people can send privacy concerns and inquiries, and one company involves stakeholders in the design of its privacy policy. The inclusion of privacy considerations in product development was embraced by eight companies. Another group of measures pertain to the participation in industry initiatives and collaborations. Ten companies mention a variety of privacy forums, centers, associations, think tanks, and institutes in which they are involved, including for example, the Electronic Privacy Group, the European Privacy Of? cers Forum, or the Liberty Alliance. Some of them also state that they cooperate with other companies and governments. However, the nature of this cooperation remains unclear, and in some places, the cooperating institutions are not even mentioned. Ultimately, a few US companies express their views on privacy legislation. As part of the measures they have taken, three companies take an active stance for either privacy legislation or self-regulation. Both of these viewpoints are visions at this point, as there is neither privacy legislation nor a functioning model of self-regulation in the United States. The two viewpoints are as follows: ‘We also believe that governments must ? nd improved ways to enforce laws against data breach, misuse and fraud, and help consumers pursue those who mishandle their personal information. . . . HP was one of the ? rst companies to embrace the idea of a comprehensive U. S. privacy law. ‘Because disparate and multiple privacy rules place a heavy burden on global companies, we support a model of industry self-regulation (as opposed to government intervention) in which innovative tools give consumers greater choice in both protecting their personal data and understanding how it may be co llected and used. ’ they comply with all relevant privacy laws. As compliance with laws is a legal rather than an ethical responsibility according to Carroll’s (1979) classi? cation of corporate responsibilities, only going beyond the law can qualify as a CSR initiative. Dressing up a legal responsibility as an ethical responsibility casts doubt over the sincerity of these efforts. In fact, one of these 11 companies has implemented no other privacy measure apart from legal compliance. There is only one company that vows to exceed legal requirements: ‘HP is pioneering an approach to the protection and responsible use of personal information. This effort goes beyond compliance with the law. ’ Only a minority of companies have adopted the privacy standards of outside organizations, such as GRI or privacy seal programs. Stakeholder relationships The measures identi? ed above relate to a number of internal and external stakeholder groups, including employees, consumers, parents, industry, suppliers, governments, advocacy groups, and the community at large. However, the analysis of the measures does not reveal anything about the relationships with stakeholders, and in some cases, the stakeholder group to which a particular measure was addressed was not even mentioned. This section therefore focuses speci? cally on the stakeholder groups to which the companies express some form of consideration. This could be in the form of protection measures, information provision, cooperation, or merely by expressing an awareness of their stakes in privacy. In addition to an account of these overt commitments to stakeholders, a discourse analysis is used to uncover discursively constructed relationships with stakeholders. Table 3 lists the various stakeholder groups identi? d, together with their stake in privacy, the number of companies that made a commitment toward each stakeholder group, and an example of such a commitment. This table is different from the results presented in Table 2 in that it was not concrete actions that guided this analysis, b ut the awareness of stakeholder concerns. We ? nd that companies recognize primarily the stakes of their customers and employees, who exercise a direct and economic in? uence on the company and can therefore be labeled Even companies that do not take a stance on the legislation vs. self-regulation debate emphasize compliance with legislation. Eleven companies state that 96 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Table 3: Addressing stakeholder concerns Stakeholder GroupStake # Primary Customers/ Protection of 25 Users their data Employees Suppliers/ Vendors Training Gu idelines 14 6 Example ‘In order to help our customers address these issues, we have begun to develop guidance documents to help customers understand which parts of our technology may have privacy applications. ‘We work hard to ensure that Sun employees have the information they need to apply our privacy protection standards in their work. ’ ‘When it is necessary for business reasons to share a person’s information with third parties such as network service providers and marketing campaign partners, we work together to ensure that we maintain the highest privacy standards. ’ ‘We met with government of? cials and regulators in all regions to understand their concerns and initiatives and to help them fully appreciate the potential implications for privacy of new technologies. ’ ‘We are working with other industry participants . . . to develop solutions that help us reach both of these objectives. ‘In 2007, we formed our St akeholder Advisory Council (SAC) comprising respected experts from a variety of nongovernmental organizations. ’ ‘Symantec is committed to helping parents keep their kids cybersafe. We believe that in the same way that we educate our children about the risks of drugs, smoking, or violence, it is critical that we educate them about the importance of safe computing. ’ ‘We tap this internal resource to offer programs that bene? t our local schools and communities. We are also in the process of implementing an employee-led education program. ’ Secondary Government Industry Advocacy groups Parents Compliance with laws; expertise in data handling Cooperation Cooperation 6 6 3 Protection of 5 their children’s data Expertise 1 Schools/ communities †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. ‘primary stakeholders’ according to Ansoff (1965). However, there are also companies that talk about privacy in a CSR context, but do not voice a commitment to these two primary stakeholder groups. Of the 30 companies, ? ve do not state that they do anything to improve the privacy situation of their customers and 16 do not make such a commitment toward their employees. Suppliers, who are also primary stakeholders, are addressed to a smaller extent. We can also see that the companies in the sample largely neglect their secondary stakeholders, i. e. those groups who do not directly in? uence a company’s core business (Ansoff 1965). Only a maximum of six companies interact with each secondary stakeholder group, such as parents or governments. On the surface, all companies studied engage in a discourse characterized by care and concern for privacy. In particular, emotion-laden words like help, understand, respect, concern, and safe abound across all texts studied. For example: ‘Protecting our customers’ privacy is a priority. We understand and respect your desire to protect your personal information. ’ ‘And as the 24 A 7 demands of the Internet Age threaten to overwhelm customers with complexity, they need trusted and reliable companies to help them make sense of technology and put it to use to make their lives better. ’ The tone becomes even more concerned when companies address their relationship with parents and children: ‘We understand the responsibility and concern of parents who worry about their children’s exposure to inappropriate content and potentially dangerous interactions on the Web. ’ ‘Protecting our children . . . We believe that in the same way that we educate our children about the risks of drugs, smoking, or violence, it is critical r 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 97 Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 that we educate them about the importance of safe computing. ’ In the second example, the pronoun ‘we/our’ adds to the concerned tone by promoting a sense of collegiality and shared affection. The same is also achieved in other places, when companies use this inclusive form of ‘we’ to reduce the distance between themselves and their outside stakeholders: ‘Our individual sensitivities about how our information is treated . . . are not uniform’ or ‘Sun is committed to investigating and addressing the privacy challenges . . . associated with our increasingly digital way of life. ’ In such statements, companies reduce the power distance between themselves and their stakeholders. The inclusive ‘we’ is also an indicator of positive politeness (Brown Levinson 1987), indicating how writers conceptualize their audiences and what kind of distance writers create between themselves and their audience. While some companies use the inclusive ‘we,’ others talk about companies in general, e. g. ‘all businesses are responsible for . . . ,’ which includes themselves only implicitly and distances themselves from these events. Mostly, though, companies make themselves the causal agents: ‘we must address these concerns by helping to protect . . .. ’ Notably, one company draws its audiences into the discourse by always addressing them directly, e. g. ‘We understand and respect your desire to protect . . .. ’ All together, the different voices present in these texts suggest that companies have different levels of self-awareness and different understandings of their role in this process. Less variety exists in the distance to the audience, which is – apart from one exception – not explicitly present in the discourse. This suggests that companies do not consider their CSR activities to be dialogic in nature. Another kind of discourse is found in 10 of the companies’ texts studied. This discourse reveals that some companies are actually interested in ? nding a balance between users’ privacy interests and their own business interests rather than protecting privacy unconditionally. They seek to achieve a balance between customers’ privacy interests and ‘business priorities,’ ‘business requirements,’ ‘business needs,’ their ‘values,’ or their ‘ability . . . to reap the bene? ts of online interactions. Business interests are also communicated implicitly: ‘our goal is simple: to balance the interests and concerns of our customers’ private information with their interest in receiving quality service and information about useful new products. ’ Alternatively, one company mentions only one weight of the balance, without saying what the other weight is: ‘that we are striking the right balance for our customers’ and ‘to reach balanced results. ’ The discourse of balance is a manifestation of the companies’ power, given that it is they who decide when this balance is reached. Interestingly, this kind of discourse has nothing to do with the motivations they express. Two companies, for example, have voiced moral motives, but also engage in this discourse of balance, as does the one company that has indicated an instrumental motive. It is also worth noting that not a single European company in the sample engages in this discourse of balance. Discussion The literature review has highlighted that users are concerned about privacy and that companies do not respond in a manner that eases stakeholder concerns. The companies chosen for this study are all active in the hardware, software, or telecommunications industries, in which data play a crucial role. Thus, information privacy, and in particular online privacy, is a central issue in their business conduct. The content analysis has revealed that only a small proportion of the largest IT companies comprehensively address privacy as a social responsibility. In the sample, we ? nd both companies that have taken a number of relevant actions to address user privacy and companies that have only taken one or two concrete measures, but nevertheless present privacy as part of their CSR program. A substantial proportion of the measures they have taken fall into the area of compliance and employee conduct (e. g. guidelines, policies, monitoring, and reporting), while measures that stimulate a stakeholder dialogue or represent corporate social innovation are found less frequently. Further, some companies reveal that they seek to strike a balance between their own business interests and their stakeholders’ privacy needs. The sample even contains companies that 98 r 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 voice moral motives for framing online privacy as a CSR, while at the same time indicating that they are interested in striking a balance between users’ privacy interests and their own business interests. We have also seen that some of the privacy measures are actually intended to ful? ll legal responsibilities rather than ethical ones. Thus, some companies in the sample voice concerns and a commitment to help, but do not take privacy to the level of an ethical responsibility (cf. Carroll 1991). At the same time, companies load their privacy discourse with emotive terms suggesting concern, commitment, and a desire to help. While this kind of language is typical of CSR messages and can almost be expected (cf. Pollach 2003), it is still in contrast to the results of the content analysis, which has shown that comprehensive privacy programs are for the most part non-existent. The ? ndings also indicate that companies have chosen a wide variety of approaches to information privacy. In fact, many of the different measures denti? ed were taken by one, two, or three companies only. Thus, little mimicry and no institutionalized practices have emerged yet. In uncertain environments, companies have a tendency to model themselves after other companies that are more successful or more respected. This mimicry leads to institution alized practices that help companies to obtain legitimacy (DiMaggio Powell 1983). The environment in which the sample companies operate can be characterized as uncertain, as there is no comprehensive privacy legislation as yet and privacy is, to some extent, at each company’s discretion. For mimicry behavior to occur, it must be clear to the ? m that adopting a certain practice brings competitive advantages (DiMaggio Powell 1983). In the case of privacy, an institutionalization of voluntary privacy practices could mean that privacy regulation is preempted. However, as not every company in the sample, and maybe in the industry as a whole, is pro self-regulation, some companies may decide not to adopt privacy practices voluntarily, despite the fact that they care about user privacy. Privacy may be on its way to mature from the ethics/compliance focus to a more responsive, proactive focus, but at the moment, it plays a minor role as a CSR. This point is also re? ected in the ? nding that companies address primarily consumer oncerns and step up employee training, while all other stakeholder groups in privacy play a subordinate role. Companies may not have recognized the bene? ts to be gained from engaging with secondary stakeholder groups, e. g. from cooperating with industry partners. At the same time, companies may have been too occupied with implementing privacy standards internally, so that their privacy efforts do not involve secondary stakeholders as yet. These internal compliance measures are clearly the sine qua non for a company’s external privacy activities, such as participation in industry initiatives. This study is not without limitations. One clear limitation is that the data stem from corporate selfreports, which are problematic (cf. Podsakoff Organ 1986) in that they are based on what the company reveals rather than what is actually true. This could mean that companies overstate their activities. At the same time, companies may not have mentioned the particular measures they have taken, because they did not consider them important enough. Also, the sample size could have been larger, but the small sample size also serves to illustrate that privacy is just about to begin to play a role in CSR programs of technology-oriented companies. APPENDIX A: COMPANIES Adobe Agilent ATT Belgacom British Telecom Cisco Computer Associates Dell Deutsche Telekom Electronic Data Systems France Telecom HP IBM Microsoft Motorola Nokia Oracle IN THE SAMPLE 2010 The Author Business Ethics: A European Review r 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 99 Business Ethics: A European Review Volume 20 Number 1 January 2011 Portugal Telekom Royal KPN Sabre Sprint Sun Symantec Telefonica Telekom Austria Telia Sonera Verizon Virgin Vodafone Xerox Refe rences Aguilera, R. V. , Rupp, D. , Williams, C. A. and Ganapathi, J. 2007. ‘Putting the S back in CSR: a multilevel theory of social change in organizations’. 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Mammography X-ray and Breast Tissue free essay sample

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovered x-rays while working with a Crookes tube in his laboratory on November 8, 1895. Eighteen years later mammography got its rudimentary beginnings due to these ionizing x-rays. In 1913, Berlin Albert Soloman, a German surgeon, was among the first to discover that breast cancer could be radiographed. In a 1927 medical textbook the first instance of a radiograph of a living person’s breast taken by Otto Kleinschmidt was published. Although these recordings of mammography appeared in early years, it wasn’t until the late 50’s that it was popularized by Robert Egan, from the United States and Professor Charles M. Gros, from Germany. These men started using mammography for the diagnosis and evaluation of breast cancer. With this popularity of mammography came vast improvements with technology. Before 1969, many machines were not designed for imaging exclusively breast tissue. For example, imaging units from the past were comprised of tungsten targets, which were primarily used for imaging anatomy that required relatively higher doses of radiation. These units also worked off of a large focal spot which decreases the detail of the image. This was not ideal for imaging something as minute as a breast calcification. In the 60’s direct exposure x-ray film was the film of choice. This film often required a long exposure time which causes a higher dose of radiation to the patient and increased motion blur. Some units utilized substandard compression paddles that didn’t distribute pressure evenly, which produced a radiograph with uneven contrast. This all resulted in a poor diagnostic film. In 1969 dedicated mammography units were employed with low kilovoltage x-ray tubes and molybdenum targets making the units more efficient in x-ray production. The dedicated mammography units have more latitude for positioning as well as minimal discomfort for the patient. Smaller focal spots for imaging little objects with increased detail were also designed. These units were accompanied with their own compression cone. Industrial grade, high-detail film became available that year also. Xeromammography became popular by John Wolfe and Ruzicka in the 60’s. This type of mammography greatly reduced the radiation dose received by the patient compared to the earlier direct film and was easier to understand and evaluate. 1972 was a turning point for mammography when Dupont announced their production of higher-resolution faster speed x-ray films in conjunction with intensifying screens. These intensifying screens contained calcium tungstate phosphor materials that convert x-rays into light. This concept caused the film to be exposed with less radiation, therefore reducing the amount of radiation to the patient. Rare earth elements, a faster, more efficient phosphor, began replacing the use of calcium tungstate in 1976, making this intensifying screen combination the most efficient combination until early 2000. In 1990, a number of advances were employed including: grid technique, emphasis on compression, high-frequency generators, and automatic exposure controls. In the early 2000’s digital technology was incorporated with mammography. It replaced the screen-film system with a charged-coupled device (CCD). The CCD converts visible light photons to electrons. Electrons are sent to a computer where it is converted into a digital format and a radiographic image is produced on a CRT monitor. Together these developments have given mammography the ability to produce diagnostic radiographic images with greater detail and considerably reduced patient radiation dose. Digital mammography has given the physicians the capability to adjust contrast, transmit images, and to magnify suspicious areas of the breast. This technology has also given the radiologist the capacity to digitally mark areas of concern directly onto the digitalized image which is conveniently stored on the computer for easy retrieval for the next mammogram for comparison. A mammography unit is a rectangular box that houses a vacuum tube in which x-rays are produced. The unit is designed to rotate to optimally image all angles of the breast tissues. These units are integrated with a compression device that firmly holds the breast in place. This act of flattening the breast is extremely important to improve optical density, contrast, and spatial resolution and lower the patient’s radiation dose. Most importantly, to ensure that small abnormalities won’t be covered by overlying breast tissue. In routine screening procedures, each breast should be screened using the craniocaudal (CC) and mediolateral oblique (MLO) projections; however, there are 13 projections that can be performed. Once the breast is positioned, a low dose of ionizing radiation is sent through the tissue from the vacuum tube to produce black and white images of the tissue on x-ray film. Different parts of the body absorb the x-rays in varying degrees. Bone absorbs much of the radiation while soft tissue allows more of the x-ray to pass through. As a result, bones appear white on an x-ray, soft tissue shows up in shades of gray and air appears black. Therefore, a dense microcalcification of the breast will appear whiter than the rest of the breast tissue. For that reason both breasts are examined for comparison purposes. Once the screening is complete, the radiologist looks for evidence of cancer or non-cancerous conditions that may require further testing, follow-up or treatment by looking at the density and shapes of the tissues on the radiograph. Their findings could include things such as calcium deposits in ducts and other tissues, masses or lumps, distorted tissues or dense areas appearing in only one breast and/or that have appeared since last mammogram. Calcifications can be the result of cell secretions, cell debris, inflammation, trauma, previous radiation or foreign bodies. Tiny, irregular deposits with sharp edges called microcalcifications may be associated with cancer. Larger, coarser deposits called macrocalcifications may be caused by a benign condition known as fibroadenoma. Dense areas indicate tissue with many glands and can make calcifications and masses more difficult to identify. They could also represent cancer. Distorted areas suggest tumors that may have invaded tissues. If any of these abnormal conditions are found the patient is referred for further testing, possibly a diagnostic mammogram, MRI, ultrasound or a biopsy. Radiation safety is a concern with all parties involved. The doctor and the technologist should see that proper safety guidelines are adhered to so that the benefits of the exam far outweigh the risk of radiation. Mammogram screenings should begin at the age of 40, unless a patient possesses high risk factors. The American College of Radiology, the American Cancer Society, and the American Medical Association recommend annual mammography screenings at least every other year for women between the ages of 40 and 49 and yearly thereafter. High risk factors put a patient at an increased risk of developing cancer and should begin screenings at an earlier age. These factors include but not limited to: early onset of menses, immediate family members with a history of cancer and a first born child after the age of 30. The patient should always be assessed for the possibility of pregnancy. Depending on the stage in development of the fetus radiation could cause birth and genetic defects that can be passed to the fetus’ offspring. Lead shielding should always be worn at the waist level though pregnancy is not suspected. The technologist should expose only the area of interest to the radiation. This is done by restricting the field size of radiation; this is called collimation. The technologist should also give clear instructions, such as â€Å"don’t move† and â€Å"hold your breath† to reduce the amount radiographs that will need to be repeated because of blurred images due to motion. This will reduce the radiation to the patient. Breast cancer is now a disease that is far from fatal. Because of early, advanced mammography screening procedures, more than 90 % of patients are cured. However there are limitations. Mammograms may present false-positive or false-negative readings about 5-15% of the time. This occurs on occasion because the procedure is not as sensitive for the denser breast tissue such as in younger women. These false readings occur more often in women under age 50. Another setback is that silicone and/or saline breast implants are radiopaque which block breast tissue that would otherwise show up on x-rays, especially if the implant was laid in front of the pectoral muscle instead of beneath it. And lastly, not all of the tumors found by mammography can be cured. Certain types of cancers are aggressive, grow rapidly and metastasize to other parts of the body. Mammography has greatly enhanced the quality of life for women by making it easier for radiologists to detect anomalies in the breast tissue. This makes for a faster and more accurate diagnosis of malignancies so patients can be treated before metastasis occurs to other parts of their body. It has also reduced the radiation dose to the patient and the possibilities of genetic mutations to future generations.

10 College Interview Questions You Should Prepare For

Early applications are in and applicants should start preparing for the next application step: the college interview. About College Interviews The first thing you should know about college interviews is that you probably won’t have one. Not every college offers interviews, and even if they do, not everyone will be interviewed. For some schools, there are simply too many applicants. For others, college interview availability is limited to the number of alumni interviewers there are in your vicinity. If you do happen to get a college interview (make sure you’re checking your email regularly!), there’s no need to panic. It’s a great opportunity for the college you applied to to learn more about you in-person. Its also a chance for you to learn more about the school from a graduate of the school and get another data point on whether its a good fit for you. While college interviews can be nerve-racking, there are ways for you to prepare for them and help you calm your nerves. Here are the top 10 college interview questions to prepare for: 1. Tell me about yourself. This question is bound to come up. It’s a way for you to introduce yourself to your interviewer and get things started. Prepare a few key points you want to share, so you don’t ramble. Where you grew up, what you want to study at X college, what your top extracurricular was, and what you like to do during your free time. This will also help frame the rest of you interviewthe interviewer might pick up on something you mentioned and ask you follow-up questions. For the most part, the college interview is a casual conversation between two people who are trying to get to know each other, so let the it flow naturally! 2. Why are you interested in this college? Since you’ve already submitted your application, you should already know the answer to this question. What about the college first drew your interest? It might be a specific academic program or it might be the campus. Be honest about what you like about the school. This might be redundant, but hopefully, by this point, you’ve done your research about this college. Whether it is religiously affiliated or has a strong college sports presence, you should know why the school stands out. It doesn’t have to be the reason you initially discovered the school, but be prepared and know what the college can offer you. 3. What major do you want to study, and why? Share your academic interests and any experiences you have that have led you to pursue this specific major. This is your chance to also mention any summer programs you participated in, or internships you did during high school that contributed to your desire to explore this specific field of study. You might be paired with an alumni interviewer who shared the same major, which may lead to a more intellectually stimulating conversation. Don’t be afraid to say you don’t know somethingyou can always ask the interviewer to shed some light on it, or do the research post-interview and mention it in your thank you email. 4. What are your strengths? This is a classic interview question. Know what your personal and academic strengths are, and prepare examples where you can demonstrate these strengths. Try to be as concise as possible with concrete examples rather than vague, overarching adjectives. For example, just saying â€Å"I’m considerate† doesn’t say much about who you are, whereas if you said â€Å"I’m a great team player,† there’s context as to how you are considerate. 5. What are your weaknesses? Another classic interview question. Be truthful about your weakness. Don’t choose one of those weaknesses that can also be seen as a strength (definitely do not give the contrived I work too hard and care too much). Sharing your honest opinion about your weaknesses is another way to demonstrate your maturity and self-awareness, both strong qualities of an applicant. Identifying them is important, but it’s even more important to point out how you’ve been working on those weaknesses. How are you tackling them right now? How have you proactively worked to strengthen your weaknesses? Have you made progress? 6. Tell me about one of your extracurriculars, and why you participated in it. This is where you can let yourself run free! Talk about the extracurricular or sport that you were most dedicated to. Given the number of years you probably dedicated to the extracurricular, you’ll have plenty to talk about. Share how you first got introduced to it, why you remained dedicated, any particularly memorable moments, and what you learned from it. 7. What is your favorite book and why? The next few questions are common college interview questions, but are not always asked. Again, the college interview will likely flow pretty naturally, so it won’t go in any particular order. If this question does come up, it’s just for the interviewer to get to know what type of literature you’re interested in as well as how you synthesize information and convey it to someone else. Don’t lie about reading any popular â€Å"intellectual† booksyou never know if the alumni interviewer has read it, and you don’t want to be caught in a lie. Its also poor form to name a title but struggle to come up with intelligible reasons for why you liked it. Be prepared to answer the And why portion of the question. 8. What was an obstacle you faced, and how did you overcome it? College interviewers want to know what type of person you are and what type of student you are. This question helps the interviewer evaluate how well you’ll fit into the college’s student body. The obstacle can be an academic one, a sports-related one, or even one you had to deal with at home. Whatever it is, focus on how you overcame it. 9. What sets you apart from other applicants? Every university has thousands of applicants flowing in right now, and the admissions officers want to know what makes you different. Perhaps you have multiple traits, or an interesting family background. Maybe it’s about how and what you’ll contribute to the college community and student body. An easy way to prepare for this question is to consider the praise teachers, mentors or coaches have given you in the past that have really highlighted unique qualities about you. 10. Do you have any questions for me? Finally, don’t forget you have the opportunity to learn about the college you just applied to. You have the chance to speak to a living and breathing person who has been in the same position as you. Take advantage of it! Are there are any stereotypes or rumors about the school you wanted to clear up? Do you have any concerns about the school? Speaking with alumni is also a great way to tap into what a school offers to its students after they graduate. Find out what opportunities are available to you after you put in your 4 years on campus. Feeling better about your college interview? If youre still a little nervous, here is some student advice on what the college interview was like. Youll get a better sense of the environment, what to expect and what the main takeaways are. For more application advice, try our Advice Search to get your application questions answered.

What is Justice essays

What is Justice essays Justice is a term used in many different contexts and has a range of subtle meanings. A common definition of justice is "The quality of being just; integrity, impartiality; rightness; the awarding of what is due: the (Chamber's Dictionary). This shows that justice can be perceived in many different ways; from the implementation of laws to moral and ethical and I understand the term justice in its broadest sense. I tend to view justice in a more Platonic way. Justice as a concept should not be separated from other related concepts such as morality, ethics and compassion. However, the idealistic view of justice must be married to the practical, and there are legal aspects of justice that need to be spelled out. These include aspects such as the protection of rights and property. However, the legal practicalities of law should never be dissociated from the wider moral context of humanity and understanding. The following quotation expresses the concept of justice as I understand it. "The concept of social justice is best understood as forming one part of the broader concept of justice in general. To comprehend it properly, we should begin by looking at justice as a whole, and then attempt to mark off that division of justice which we call social justice. It takes only a little reflection to realize that the terms 'just' and 'justice' have a broad use. (Miller, 1979, p. 17) The Platonic sense of justice is also relevant to understanding Justice in its "broadest context." Plato placed a high degree of emphasis on justice in his philosophy and he believed that justice was a cure for many of the social evils of his time. Justice, in his philosophy, is seen to be an important part of human nature, a virtue, which is in fact a form ...

Toyota Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Toyota - Assignment Example However, competition increase especially in the low-cost model market has become a big threat for the company. Recently, the company has experienced reduced growth as it competitors continue to penetrate the market and push the company’s profits downwards. The company still stands a chance to penetrate the market by establishing new markets and focusing on cost differentiation. The survival of the company depends on the ability of the management to detect the changes in the market and to design new strategies that will keep the company top of the market in the long-term. Organizational strategies refers to the approaches that a company deploys to push its products to the market and to acquire an appropriate position in the market. Companies use competitive strategies to compete with their business rivals. In the automobile company, competition has consistently increased due to the entry of new producers. However, there is a notable insatiable demand for automobile company. A close analysis of Toyota Company will provide an appropriate ground to measure the competitive ability of the Toyota. TOWS Analysis is one of the most critical tools that help to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and Threats of company’s business model. The strength of the Toyota Company lies in its ability to brand itself as a top manufacture of automobile companies in the world. This strategy has helped the company to create a strong brand image in every market, which has become an important marketing tool. The company’s mass production has been feasible allowing the company to minimize the cost of their cars. With standard quality cars, the company’s strategy has been acceptable within the market. Besides, the company’s ability to diversify its products has helped to satisfy various needs of the market and to satisfy different market segments. Innovation within the company has led to high level of customer satisfaction which

Geothermal and Air Source Heat Pumps Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Geothermal and Air Source Heat Pumps - Essay Example It has become the need of the day to consider replacing the gas boilers and fossil fuel burning oil with some other heating systems. It can be done either by supplementing traditional energy generating systems with solar photovoltaic technology or super efficient solar thermal or by replacing current systems with efficient heating systems, such as, geothermal and air source heat pump (The Energy Conservation Group 2013). In this paper, we will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the two systems when being used to provide a heating system in a new home. We will start by exploring the technical characteristics of the two systems and their efficiency in providing both heating and hot water for a typical family home. 2. Alternative Heating Systems The alternative heating systems to be dicvsussed in this report include geothermal heating systems and the air source heat pump. Let us discuss the technical and oprational charactistics, advantages, and disadvantages of both of these s ystems. 2.1 Geothermal Heating Pumps The purpose of geothermal heat pumps is to extract heat from the ground and use it to heat radiators, air heating systems, and the temperature of the water. â€Å"The heart of a typical geothermal system is a ground-source heat pump that cycles water through an underground piping loop† (Henkenius 1998). ... Geothermal Heating and Cooling Retrieved from http://www.waterfurnace.com/how-it-works.aspx In geothermal heating systems, there is a loop of pipe buried under the soil which has fluid in it that absorbs the low temperature from the ground. The fluid, after absorbing the temperature, passes through a compressor which serves the role of increasing that temperature. The increased temperature heats water which can be used for household purposes. The ground-loop fluid, after increasing the temperature, goes back to into the soil to absorb more ground energy. In this way, the geothermal heating pump continues to produce hot or cold water. Usually, the loop is almost a couple of meters deep and the structure is flat or coiled in trenches. However, when the space is less, it can be installed in a vertical position down into the ground. In this position, the depth of the loop is about 100 metres for homes (Energy Saving Trust 2013). Geothermal Heat Pump Retrieved from http://www.geothermalad vantages.net/ A geothermal heat pump is different from a conventional heat pump in that it does not need to create heat to change the temperature of water, rather it uses soil heat for the cause which not only reduces the use of energy but also reduces the cost. Geothermal heating pumps use even and stable heat of earth to change the temperature of water. In winters, they are used to raise temperature of water, whereas in summers, they are used to decrease the temperature in accordance with the earth’s temperature. It is the constant temperature of earth that makes geothermal heat pumps work efficiently for homes. Although they are somewhat more costly than regular heat pumps as far as installation costs are concerned, but they can produce almost 25 to